The performance-outcome expectancy, E2, is the perceived relationship between performance and outcomes (or P ➨ O).1 Many things in life happen as a function of how well we perform various tasks. Note that the value attached to an input is based on our perception of its relevance and value. Our needs, values, goals, and life situations affect what valence we give an outcome. Process theory sees job satisfaction as being determined not only by the nature of the job and its context within the organization but also by the needs, values, and expectations that the individuals have about their job. They try to be as fair as possible in allocating pay. We can also deal with both over- and underreward inequities by changing the referent other (“my situation is really more like Ahmed’s”). Adams identified a number of things people do to reduce the tension produced by a perceived state of inequity. Keeping employees motivated by making them feel valued and appreciated is not just a “Western” idea. Variable Ratio. It can be as simple as a kind word or as major as a promotion. Most workers in the United States are at least partially dissatisfied with their pay.22 Equity theory helps explain this. It says that the level of reward we receive, compared to our own sense of our contribution, affects our motivation. Process theories of motivation try to explain why behaviors are initiated. “Management Tips: How To Motivate Your International Workforce.” Communicaid. Common outcomes from organizations include pay, working conditions, job status, feelings of achievement, and friendship opportunities. In the previous example, Philip’s reminders simultaneously punished one behavior (slow stocking) and reinforced another (faster stocking). Managers must keep employees focused on the qualitative aspects of their jobs as well as the quantitative ones. It is important that goals be set for most major duties. People are naturally curious about how much they are paid relative to others in the organization. Values are our beliefs about how the world should be or act, and often include words like “should” or “ought.” We compare our present conditions against these values. Two human tendencies create feelings of inequity that are not based in reality. What regional, cultural, or ethnic issues do you think managers have to navigate within the United States? Basically, the theory focuses on two related issues: Expectancy theory thus focuses on the two major aspects of motivation, direction (which alternative?) Are they equitable, given the worker’s inputs? Approach using negative reinforcement with extreme caution. The motivation is a drive that forces an individual to work in a certain way. Or an employee sabotages the work of others so that only she has goal achievement. This schedule doesn’t imply that reinforcement will be received automatically after the passage of the time period. Exhibit 14.13 summarizes the three core concepts of expectancy theory. If an employee feels he is putting more into a job than what he gets out of the job, relative to the referent, he will become demotivated, disgruntled, and even disruptive. But sometimes others set goals for us. More so than any other motivation theory, expectancy theory can be tied into most concepts of what and how people become motivated. Reinforcement occurs when a consequence makes it more likely the response/behavior will be repeated in the future. Indeed, feelings of overreward, when they occur, are quite transient. It doesn’t matter that the referent other is already pulling their weight—remember, this is all about perception. Or, you’ve heard that 90 isn’t good enough for an A in this class. That is, it attempted to determine how frequently behaviors need to be rewarded so that they are not extinguished. OpenStax is part of Rice University, which is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit. An experiment conducted by two researchers at the University of Kansas found that using nonmonetary reinforcement in addition to punitive disciplinary measures was an effective way to decrease absenteeism in an industrial setting.20. The fourth type of goal, which can be self-set, jointly determined, or assigned, is a “do your best” goal. Negative reinforcement, like positive reinforcement, is intended to make a behavior more likely to be repeated in the future. Despite its many strengths, several cautions about goal theory are appropriate. There must be effective communication of rewards and clarification of performance appraisal. This doesn’t mean that employers don’t practice discretion—they usually don’t reveal specific employees’ exact pay. As discussed above, few of the behaviors that result from underreward inequity are good for employers. For a lot of people, the very next thing they do is look at the scores received by fellow students who sit close to them. The bottom line for employers is that they need to be sensitive to employees’ need for equity. We recommend using a Very few of us go to our employers and complain that we’re overpaid! That is, referent others perform jobs that are similar in difficulty and complexity to the employee making the equity determination (see Exhibit 14.11). This book is Creative Commons Attribution License The perceived state of equity can be altered by changing our own inputs, that is, by decreasing the quantity or quality of our performance. Highly desirable outcomes (a 25 percent pay increase) are positively valent. No plagiarism, guaranteed! Nonreinforcement eventually reduces the likelihood of that response reoccurring, which means that managers who fail to reinforce a worker’s desirable behavior are also likely to see that desirable behavior less often. In equity theory, motivation is a third party construct where employees compare the effort and reward ratio with others (peers, friends, neighbors, etc.). Goal commitment is the degree to which we dedicate ourselves to achieving a goal. What could go wrong? Then, you find out the new person is making $100 more per week than you, despite your longer service and greater experience. The basic goal-setting model is shown in Exhibit 14.12. The Adams Equity Theory was developed by the American psychologist John Stacey Adams in 1963. This has to do with ownership. The OpenStax name, OpenStax logo, OpenStax book However because work relationships are not static, inequities are not usually isolated or onetime events. Vroom states that motivation, expectancy, instrumentality and valence are related to one another by the equation M= E*I*V. This means that the motivational appeal of any work path is sharply reduced whenever any one or more of these factors approaches the value zero. It is difficult to assess the perception or misperceptions of the employees hence the difficulty in applying the concepts of the theory. This does not mean that difficult goals are always achieved, but our performance will usually be better when we intend to achieve harder goals. This is a question about schedules of reinforcement, or the frequency at which effective employee behaviors should be reinforced. Feedback is important on a regular and ongoing basis. Participation also increases information about how a goal can be achieved. Supervisors give orders that something must be done by a certain time. As a Western manager working in the Middle East or sub-Saharan Africa, what motivational issues might you face? Operant conditioning theory is the simplest of the motivation theories. Registered office: Venture House, Cross Street, Arnold, Nottingham, Nottinghamshire, NG5 7PJ. Equity theory has a lot to say about basic human tendencies. The Ghanaian blog site Starrfmonline emphasizes that employee motivation and associated work quality improve when employees feel “valued, trusted, challenged, and supported in their work.” Conversely, when employees feel like a tool rather than a person, or feel unengaged with their work, then productivity suffers. Process-based theories use the mental processes of employees as the key to understanding employee motivation. In the same situation, people with weak E2s will have the opposite perceptions—that high performance levels don’t result in desirable outcomes and that it doesn’t really matter how well they perform their jobs as long as they don’t get fired. On the basis of this ratio we make an initial determination of whether or not the situation is equitable. According to Matthew MacLachlan at Communicaid, “Making the assumption that your international workforce will be motivated by the same incentives can be dangerous and have a real impact on talent retention” (2016 n.p.). Inputs are any factors we contribute to the organization that we feel have value and are relevant to the organization. Equity exists when workers perceive that rewards equal efforts (see Figure 1). Specific self-efficacy reflects our belief in our capability to perform a specific task at a specific level of performance. Never base punishment or reward on whether or not you like an employee. For maximum effort to result, her goals should be difficult, specific, accepted, and committed to. Her behavior is consistent with her values. Another premise of goal theory is that specific goals are better than vague goals. They change their own outcomes or inputs, or they change those of the referent other. To export a reference to this article please select a referencing stye below: If you are the original writer of this essay and no longer wish to have your work published on UKEssays.com then please: Our academic writing and marking services can help you! Huhman, Heather R. 2017. Or that negative outcomes are not associated with low performance? The cautions noted here are not intended to deter you from using goal theory. 2016. The first is when employees believe that a reasonable amount of effort will result in good performance. The process theories on the other hand explore how behavior is caused, sustained or stopped by the motivational factors. Now you’ve flunked out, and you’re reduced to going home to live with your parents (perish the thought!). For example goals such as sell goods worth $20 000,00 dollars in a month or keep in touch with a customer each week rather than, increase sale of goods or keep in touch with customers. Whatever the cause of rating errors, some employees may come to believe that no matter what they do they will never receive a high performance rating. We're here to answer any questions you have about our services. The effort level with the greatest force associated with it will be chosen by the individual. (We use the words response and behavior interchangeably here.) Equity theory. Equity Theory based on the relatively simple premise that people in organizations want to be treated fairly. This is the main contribution of expectancy theory: it makes us think about how organizations should distribute outcomes. Supervisors play a key role in creating perceptions of equity. High self-efficacy employees believe that they are likely to succeed at most or all of their job duties and responsibilities. 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